Confucius (551-479 BCE) lived and taught during the late Spring and Autumn Period (春秋時代, chunqiu shidai), a time of fragmentation and social upheaval in Chinese history, as states struggled against one another to maintain and expand control. In response to the chaos he witnessed, Confucius traveled from state to state, hoping to find a leader willing to take him on as a government official, and to practice his doctrine of proper conduct and governance. Confucius did not see himself as an innovator, but rather as a transmitter of knowledge (The Analects, VII.1). He sought to guide people to the traditions and ideas of a past golden age exemplified by the ancient sage rulers, Yao (堯), Shun (舜), and Yu (禹), the last being the legendary founder of the Xia (夏) dynasty. It is in this context that Confucius formulated his theory of the junzi (君子), typically translated as “gentleman,” “profound person,” “exemplary person,” or “nobleman.”

The original meaning and literal translation of junzi is “the son of nobility.” For Confucius, such a person would not necessarily need to be of noble birth, but would have to be of the highest moral character, and put into practice the philosophy transmitted by Confucius. Such a person would have to uphold proper observance of the rites (禮, li), assume the duties and responsibilities of his role in the family and clan structure by exhibiting filial piety (孝, xiao), be loyal to the sovereign (忠, zhong), and inspire others through his exemplary force of virtue (德, de). Though humble in nature, a junzi achieves a superior sense of self and his duties and obligations to family and society at large. The image above, taken from a Ming (明) Dynasty pictorial biography of Confucius’ life, depicts Confucius teaching the Book of Rites (禮記, liji) to his disciples at the apricot pavilion in his hometown of Qufu (曲阜).

The Confucian principal that guides a junzi‘s proper interaction with those not directly related to him is that of ren (仁), sometimes translated as “benevolence,” or “compassion.” It is the concept of ren that ensures that those striving to reach the level of the junzi do not become consumed by self-righteousness. Cultivating ren requires “unbending strength, resoluteness, simplicity and reticence” (The Analects, XIII.27). For the junzi, ren is the highest ideal and he not only strives to incorporate it into all his actions, but he should also be willing to give up his life for it, “For gentlemen of purpose and men of benevolence while it is inconceivable that they should seek to stay alive at the expense of benevolence, it may happen that they have to accept death in order to have benevolence accomplished” (The Analects, XV.9). The humility that ren requires is expressed above all in the golden rule, “do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire” (The Analects, XII.2). This concept applies to familial relationships, as well as informs the general mode of proper interaction between an individual and society.

A true understanding of ren is predicated on forming a complete understanding of oneself. Without understanding and transforming himself, a man cannot begin to understand how that self fits into society. However, it is not through solitary self-introspection that one develops a deeper sense of self, but, as illustrated in the image above, through interaction with family and community. The image above takes place in Qufu, where Confucius returned after years of travel, and where he continued instructing his disciples, encouraging discovery through scholarly debate and interpersonal interactions.

While Confucius sought to inspire others through his teachings and example, he denied having achieved the status of a junzi himself, “There are three things constantly on the lips of the gentleman none of which I have succeeded in following: ‘A man of benevolence never worries; a man of wisdom is never in two minds; a man of courage is never afraid” (The Analects, XIV.28). Embodying the principals of the junzi is an ideal one must constantly strive for, but which few ever obtain.